1.Discuss the emergence and geographical expansion of Harappan civilization. Explain the various theories associated with the decline of Harappan civilization.
Emergence
of Harappan Civilisation
The discovery of India’s first and
earliest civilisation posed a historical puzzle as it seemed to have suddenly
appeared on the stage of history, full grown and fully equipped. The Harappan
civilisation till recently showed no definite signs of birth and growth.
The puzzle could largely be solved after the extensive excavation work
conducted at Mehrgarh near the Bolan Pass between 1973 and 1980 by two French
archaeologists Richard H. Meadow and Jean Francoise Jarrige.
According to them, Mehrgarh gives us an archaeological record with a
sequence of occupations. Archaeological research over the past decades has
established a continuous sequence of strata, showing the gradual development to
the high standard of the full-fledged Indus civilisation.
These strata have been named pre-Harappan, early Harappan, mature
Harappan and late Harappan phases or stages. By reviewing the main elements of
the rural cultures of the Indian sub-continent the origin of the Indus
civilisation can be traced. Any Pre-Harappan culture claiming ancestry to the
Indus civilisation must satisfy two conditions.
The existence of very many agricultural
groups and pastoral . nomadic
communities in close contact with each other could lead to conflict among them.
Once the agriculturalist -had become prosperous they would attract other groups
which might be less fortunate. The pastoral nomads are known to engage in
trading and looting, depending on their own economic conditions.
The agricultural communities too could fight
with each other for the control of more fertile tracts of land. Probably that
is the reason why some of the communities surrounded themselves-with a defence
wall. We know that at the time of the emergence of the Harappan civilization
many sites like Kot Diji and Kalibangan were destroyed by fire. We do not know
the reasons behind this. They could simply be accidental conflagrations.
However, what Seems more plausible is the fact that among the various competing
communities in the Indus region one set of people established their power over
others. This signalled the beginning of the 'Mature Harappan' period. Thus, the
'Mature Harappan' period would not begin on one particular date cbnsidering the
large geographical space covered by the Harappan Civilization. It is likely
that city as the centre of evolution emerged over a long span of time covering
hundreds of years, but the city had arrived and it was there to dominate the
entire north-west for the next seven-eight hundred years.
GEOGRAPHICAL SPREAD
The Harappan culture existed between 2500 BC and 1800 BC. Its
mature phase lay between 2200 BC and 2000 BC. The advent of radiocarbon dating
has provided a new source of information in fixing the Harappan chronology.
Indus civilization was the largest cultural zone of the period – the area
covered by it (about 1.3 million sq.km.) being much greater than that of other
contemporary civilisation.
Over 1000 sites have discovered so far. It extends from Ropar,
almost impinging upon the sub-Himalayan foot-hills in the North to Daimabad in
the Ahmadnagar district of Maharashtra in the south, and from Sutkagendor (on
the sea-coast of south Baluchistan) in the west to Alamgirpur (in the upper
Ganga-Yamuna Doab, U P.) in the east.
The excavated
Indus cities may be classified into the following groups:
(i)
Nucleus
cities
·
Harappa:
·
Mohenjo-Daro:
·
Dholavira:
·
Kalibangan:
(ii)
Coastal
towns
·
Lothal:
·
Sutkagendor:
·
Balakot:
·
Allahdino:
(iii)
Other cities and townships.
·
Surkotada:
·
Banawali
·
Chanhudaro
·
Kot Diji:
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5- Describe the main features of Gandhara, Mathura and
Amravati School of art.
§ Gandhara School of Art
The Gadhara
region extending from Punjab to the borders of Afghanistan was an important
centre of Mahayana Buddhism up to the 5th century A.D. The region became famous
throughout the world since a new school of Indian sculpture known as the
Gandhara School developed during that period. Gandhara School imbibed all kinds
of foreign influences like Persian, Greek, Roman, Saka and Kushan.
The Gandhara School of Art is also known as the Graeco-Buddhist School of Art since Greek techniques of Art were applied to Buddhist subjects. The most important contribution of the Gandhara School of Art was the evolution of beautiful images of the Buddha and Bodhisattavas, which were executed in black stone and modelled on identical characters of Graeco-Roman pantheon. The most characteristic trait of Gandhara sculpture is the depiction of Lord Buddha in the standing or seated positions.
Main features of this school are:
1] Tendency to mould human body in a realistic manner with great attention to physical details.
2] Representation of thick drapery with large and bold fold lines.
3] Rich carving, elaborate ornamentation & complex symbolism.
The Gandhara School of Art is also known as the Graeco-Buddhist School of Art since Greek techniques of Art were applied to Buddhist subjects. The most important contribution of the Gandhara School of Art was the evolution of beautiful images of the Buddha and Bodhisattavas, which were executed in black stone and modelled on identical characters of Graeco-Roman pantheon. The most characteristic trait of Gandhara sculpture is the depiction of Lord Buddha in the standing or seated positions.
Main features of this school are:
1] Tendency to mould human body in a realistic manner with great attention to physical details.
2] Representation of thick drapery with large and bold fold lines.
3] Rich carving, elaborate ornamentation & complex symbolism.
§ Mathura School of Art:
The Mathura School of art flourished at the holy
city of Mathura especially between 1-3 A.D. It established the tradition
of transforming Buddhist symbols into human form. Buddha’s first image can be
traced to Kanishka’s reign (about 78 A.D.). The earliest sculptures of Buddha
were made keeping the yaksha prototype in mind. They were depicted as strongly
built with the right hand raised in protection and the left hand on the waist.
The figures produced by this school of art do not have moustaches and beards as
in the Gandhara Art. These figures can be seen in the museum of Mathura. The
standing Buddha figures resembles the yaksha figures and indicates the Kushan
influence. The seated figures are in the padmasana posture. The Mathura
School not only produced beautiful images of the Buddha but also of the Jain
Tirthankaras and gods and goddesses of the Hindu pantheon. Popular Brahmanical
gods siva, vishnu and their consorts were represented. The Guptas adopted the
Mathura School of Art and further improvised and perfected it. The most
striking remains are beautiful, richly jewelled female figures of yakshinis,
naginis and apsaras.
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